Implications For Classroom Teachers Education Essay

Implications For Classroom Teachers Education Essay Learning is the process that results in a relatively enduring change in a person or persons (Alexander et al, 2009: 186). According to Winn, 1990, learning is a dynamic process whereby the students knowledge and skills are different when compared before to after learning. Since teaching is the promotion of learning, our knowledge of learning and the corresponding theories in how we learn should inform our teaching (Muijs, 2007). Understanding how knowledge is developed can allow teachers to shape the methodological delivery of their subject content to match the theoretical frameworks underpinning how knowledge is enhanced. Attending to the way students learn can be used to foster effective teaching practices, allowing teachers to improve their practice, and ultimately enhacne the quality of the learners experience (Macleod Golby, 2003). A number of educational researchers, including Vytsgosy 1986, Piaget, 1976, Skinner 1974; Bandura 1986 amongst others, offer learning paradigms to explain how individuals learn. For the purposes of this assignment the extremes of this learning theory spectrum, which are represented by the Behaviourist and Constructivist theories of learning, will be discussed. Inevitably, learning and teaching poses a synergistic relationship, reinforcing the need for teachers to teach with an approach that reflects how students naturally learn (Muijs, 2007), and subsequently consider the implications of the learning theories on their classroom practice. The behaviouristic theory of learning Learning, according to behaviourists (Skinner 1974; Bandura 1986), is defined as the acquisition of new behaviour. The focus of behaviourism is the conditioning of observable human behaviour and revolves around the principal conception that a reaction is made in response to a specific stimulus (Prittard, 2009). This reaction leads to a consequence. If the consequence is pleasant and positive, the behaviour change becomes reinforced via positive reinforcement. With consistent reinforcement, the behaviour pattern becomes conditioned and is automatically activated upon stimuli presentation. Physiologically, behaviourist theories propose that learning is achieved through reinforcement of a particular neural pathway, which links the stimuli and response in the brain. This repeated activation and reinforcement ultimately strengthens the neural pathways and connections between the stimuli and specific responses, resulting in a faster, smoother implementation of certain responses (Pritchard, 2009). Behaviourists identify this form of learning as conditioning, where with consistent reinforcement the behaviour pattern becomes conditioned. Classical conditioning involves the reinforcement of a natural reflex or behaviours which occur naturally as a response to a specific stimulus. In contrast, operant conditioning involves reinforcing behaviour by praising it, or discouraging undesirable behaviour with punishment (Prittard, 2009). Constructivist advocates, including Vygotsky 1986 and Piaget (1970; 1976) amongst others, began to criticise the behaviourist approach, as it was seen too teacher centred and directed, void of meaningful learning and the teacher process was focused too much on individual rather than collaborative group work. In addition, the constructivist theorists challenged the behaviourist proposed separation between mental processing and knowledge, which had to be bridged by the role of a teacher (Prittard, 2009). The Constructivist Theory The constructivist movement was formed on Piagets (1976) and Vygotsky (1986) work who viewed learning as the effect of mental construction, whereby learners combined their existing knowledge with new information, to construct meaning and formulated their understanding (Cholewinski, 2009). The constructivist theory proposes that learning is an active, contextual process, a social activity, centred on constructing meaning and regards the learner as a responsible agent in their knowledge acquisition (Loyens 2007; Cholewinski 2009). In constructivist learning, individuals use world-based experiences in an effort to make sense of what they perceive and establish their understanding of their surroundings (Harris, 1994). Since constructivism involves learners to interact with their immediate learning environment, learning has been considered to be situation-specific and context-bound activity (McInerney and McInerney, 2002). Constructivism is an umbrella term to encompass the wide range of constructivist perspectives, which can be separated into two branches; cognitive constructivism (Piaget, 1976) and social constructivism (Vygotsky, 1986). Both sub-types believe that knowledge is actively constructed by individuals (Birenbaum 2003), however through the use of different mediums; either through a series of internal, intellectual stages (cognitive constructivism), or by social interaction (social constructivism). The numerous perspectives on constructivism within these two sub-types could be essentially grouped around a rooted assumption about learning. That is, knowledge is actively constructed by the learner (Birenbaum 2003; Harris and Alexander 1998). Piagets (2001) developmental stage theory, which represents cognitive constructivism, presents four age-referenced development stages which provide a theory of gradual cognitive development up to the age of eleven years old. The stages refer to an explicit age range and characterise the cognitive abilities necessary at each stage to construct meaning of ones environment. Social constructivism emphasises the role of language in the process of intellectual development. Vygotsky considered dialogue, usually with a more knowledgeable other, as a vehicle by which concepts are considered, shared and developed. The dialogue, which is based on learners pre existing and current knowledge (schemas), is then exploited to develop and construct new ideas and understanding. Vygotsky advocates that the process of learning involves moving into and across a zone of proximal development, which is aided by the intervention of another through support. The zone of proximal development is a theoretical space of understanding which is just above the level of an individuals current understanding. The process of giving support to learners at the appropriate time and level of sophistication to meet the individual needs is termed scaffolding. Scaffolding can allow the movement from one zone to another and assists in the passing through the zone of proximal development. From reviewing the literature, educational researchers which employ these constructivist principles select aspects from both strands of this learning theory (Biggs, 1979), and use constructivist theories as a generalised term. Therefore, for the purpose of this assignment, the term constructivism will reflect a collaboration of both social and cognitive strands; however specific branches and the implications of these strands are highlighted where necessary. Critique of learning theories and associated implications upon classroom practice A review of the literature suggests that behaviouristic learning does not offer students the chance to develop deep meaning and understanding (Entwistle Smith, 2002), but instead has a tendency to promote superficial learning of skills (Fosnot, 1996). Making a correct response and remembering content does not necessarily imply understanding, and consequently the actual understanding achieved through behavioural approaches is challenged. Marton et al, (1997) and Entwistle and Smith (2002) conclude that the use of rote memorisation represents a learning approach to a surface level of understanding, whilst establishing links with current knowledge, as encouraged by constructivists, reflects an approach for a deeper level of understanding. This suggests that academic and subject knowledge learning, based on the behaviouristic theory, may not be academically supported. Furthermore, from a constructivist perspective, the principle of learning using prior experience is also beneficial in promoting a deeper and richer understanding (Pressley, Harris Marks, 1992). Demerici 2009 advises that information which is connected to a learners prior experiences is more likely to be retained, explaining higher retention rates when a constructivist approach is adopted. (Demirici and Yavuz, 2009). Research suggests that learning through such constructive mediums, like discussion, participation and practice, are academically successful and associated with learning gains and knowledge retention (Demirci Yavuz, 2009). Dericimi also reported a significant difference in post-test grades and retention learning tests grades, with the constructivist approach being more efficient than the conventional, behaviouristic approach. Cumulatively, the research suggests that constructivist approaches lead to a richer and deeper understanding. It is therefore plausible to suggest that the quality and depth of understanding associated to a constructivist teaching approach is more likely to exceed that of the behaviourist approach. However, as Entwhistle and Smith (2002) identify, the association between memorisation and surface approach learning may be weak. Kember, (1996) and Watkins and Biggs (1996) reported that memorisation can be used to learn unfamiliar terminology, as the first stage to establishing understanding. This concept, where memorisation is part of meaningful learning, is defined as memorising with understanding (Marton, Watkins, Tang, 1997; Meyer, 2000) and has been conducted by students as a successful revision tool (Entwistle Entwistle, 2001). Controversially, Fox (2001) suggests that the constructivist theory may imply that remembering is not important, and that learning is solely centred on understanding concepts. However, neither of these are true, and being able to remember knowledge is an important prerequisite of learning. In addition, Biggs, (1998) and Jin and Cortazzi, (1998) have reported that constructivist teaching approaches dont consistently guarantee teaching effectiveness. Instead, traditional, more behaviourist approaches to learning in large classes has proven to be successful internationally, such as in China. Fox, 2001, argues that constructivism neglects the role of memorisation and mechanical learning techniques Arguably, due to the varying nature of meaning which is uncontrollably constructed by students, in some cases, rote learning and memorisation may be more useful when teaching factual concepts and where clarity in understanding is required. Rote learning may be used to help students cope better with some aspects of work that they find difficult. In addition, Smith (2001, 2002) affirms that rote learning can contribute to understanding. However, teachers must consider that rote learning is not an approach to develop understanding and therefore where possible, should be followed by attempts to encourage and promote understanding. For example teachers could consider engaging with the subject content and provoking discussion of the content in an effort to encourage more meaningful understanding. Group work may play a very important role in reinforcing subject knowledge and working to gether and collaborating with peers could be a useful teaching and learning tool. Ultimately, it appears that behaviouristic learning approaches can be beneficial for particular tasks such as establishing classroom behaviour (Prittard, 2009). For example, Muijs Reynolds (2003) report that standard school and classroom routines and expectations for behaviour can be successfully learnt through behaviouristic approaches. Therefore, teachers need to consider whether the learning is academic or behavioural before teaching the class. In the case of behaviour management, a strategy to quieten the class, such as raising of the hand, or counting down from three could be effectively used. In this case, the stimulus, such as the teacher raising their hand or calling out the number three, must be fully explained to the class. In addition, the stimuli must be fully visible and audible to the students, which is possible with a clearly risen hand or an assertive voice. The response desired, such as a student raising of the hand and silence, must be fully understood by students. It is important that the stimulus-response occurrence is repeated by the teacher and used regularly. The same strategy should be employed every time the teacher wants to quieten the class, establishing consistency of stimuli and behavioural response. This repeated activation strengthens the pathways, affording for a smoother and faster implementation of the response. Pupils should be made aware of the negative and positive consequences if they do not respond to the stimuli as desired and the consequences need to be kept consistent. Therefore, consistency of behaviour management strategies is crucial and classroom practice must adhere to the same strategise as the same stimuli is presented for a specific response. Behaviourism relies on reinforcement which is employed to condition the behaviour, and therefore is essentially the tool which brings about learning. Therefore rewards and punishments for behaviours must play a crucial role and actively administered within classroom practice. Behaviourism may therefore stimulate and encourage more use of positive reinforcement which has been a well recognised effective classroom practice (Elliott and Busse, 1991). However teachers must consider that rewarding children who are already highly motivated may not be as effective, and may actually lead to a loss of interest (Prittard, 2009) Rewards and praise have been shown to enhance motivation, and serve as an effective behaviour management tool, however, praising students may not come naturally to teachers. Behaviouristic approaches to learning appear to be more favourable to certain individuals, and teachers need to consider the pupils concerned and whether this approach to learning suits their learning styles, needs and ability. For example, Prittard (2009) reports that behaviouristic methods are more advantageous for those pupils who display anxious tendencies and low motivation. In contrast, those of higher academic ability perceive simplistic drill and practice unsatisfying and dull (Prittard 2009). In addition, some students demand understanding, yet adhering to behaviouristic learning approaches does not accommodate this requirement. In other situations, the concepts of learning without understanding can fuel frustration, lead to misconceptions and generate a difficult learning environment (Prittard 2009) Another important consideration is that behaviourist approaches dont take account of mental cognitive processing involved in learning. In contrast, constructivism emphasises that the learners must develop their understanding for themselves and constructivist researchers advocate that mental activity is the lifeblood of learning and the extent of what is learnt (Jonassen Rohrer-Murphy, 1999). However, the constructivist theory may imply that all individual differences in learning come down to the consequences of each learners history of learning (Loyens, 2008). Furthermore, although we do learn by acquiring knowledge from our environments through interacting with the external world, Fox highlights that the environment also acts upon learners. That is, we act and react, and learning can be achieved from both experiences. However, constructivism appears to fail to acknowledge adaptive instinctive responses as reactive forms of learning (Fox, 2001) and the role of talent in cognitive development. Furthermore, Fox (2001) and Bredo, (2000) argue that constructivism discounts the role of innate, motivational and genetic factors in knowledge construction, which have been proven to play a role in cognitive development and learning (Carey Spelke, 1994). Teachers therefore cannot assume that the products of learning are solely the teachers effort and thought; instead learning is externally and internally influenced. Importantly, teachers need to provide activities which engage and challenge learners. This demands a board array of work which is differentiated to the learners intellect.. Teachers need to offer scope of activities where the accustomed effort and activity falls on the learners responsibility. Differentiation is a critical implication in the classroom to assure that all pupils have to apply mental effort and take an active role in their own learning. Such opportunities would afford learner engagement and optimise the possibility of effective lasting learning taking place (Prittard, 2009). Personalisation is also crucial to ensure all learners, despite genetic and innate differences which may affect their learning are accounted for. If a pupil is set tasks which do not require thought or challenge, learning constructively will fail. Piagets stage developmental theory offers guidance covering the level of complexity that may be expected in a childs thought processes at approximate stages in their development. Piagets Theory may guide a teachers differentiation as to the ability of pupils, and the required scaffolding and support in order to facilitate the movement between zones of cognitive development. Whilst Piagets developmental stage theory influences principally primary school teaching practices, given the ages this theory is related to, the appreciation and awareness that cognitive ability develops with age is important to consider when teaching all ages. The exactness of the Piaget (2001) stage of development has been criticised since in it unclear and presumptuous to assume children will pass through the stages at specific ages, however, as a developmental process; this theory is useful in teaching practices Another implication for teachers is the questioning they employ within the classroom. To allow pupils to construct their own knowledge and understanding, questions need to be higher order and exploratory Moursund (2003), in accordance with Blooms Taxonomy (1956) , to include command words such as evaluate and synthesise. Moreover, questions need to be open-ended and allow pupils to develop their personal understanding though answering the questions, rather than simple closed questions, where the answers are already pre-determined. Pupils need to be given the opportunity to gradually learn processes and construct their own answers. Teachers can promote this using questions which encourage students to gradually construct their understanding, such as evaluate, synthesise and analytical questions. Another pitfall of the constructivist theory is that it assumes students actively seek resources and experiences, and therefore students understanding is dependent and anchored by their experiences and pre-existing knowledge. In addition, it is assumed that learners utilise the construed data to actively construct their knowledge (Renkl, 1999). Therefore, this approach to learning relies on students encountering experiences and applying these experiences to their pre-existing knowledge to develop their understanding. However, such experiences and world-based interactions may not be feasible or available to students due to their lifestyle circumstances. Consequently, teachers need to be aware that understanding and meaning is limited to the individual experiences of the students. In accordance with this assumption, the constructivist theory can explain why pupils conceptions and meaning do vary between each other (Taber, 2000). In addition, if the construction of knowledge is the acti vity of the learner, then the learner can only understand what they have constructed (Duffy Cunningham). Therefore, constructivism may be seen as subjective and relative (Duffy and Cunningham, 1996). This may lead to marking criteria discrepancies, confusion and inconsistency, and student misconceptions, which do not match reality. In addition, Duffy and Cunningham propose that if the constructions and meanings are different amongst students, the little shared understanding may challenge the ease of communication between learners and the class. This may jeopardise the effectiveness of class discussions and social interactions as a tool to enhance learning. Similarly, as construction is activity on part of the learner (Bruner 1966, 1971), what is constructed cannot be controlled by the teacher. Instead the learner has autonomy and self-regulates what understanding is established. Therefore the students constructed understanding may not parallel with other students, with reality or with the teachers construction and understanding, resulting in multiple understandings (Choleweskni, 2009). Consequently, teachers must not assume that the construction and understanding of a concept is universal between all students. Instead teachers must actively access and consider the alternative perceptions and understanding of the learners, hence why a transmission teaching approach is fruitless. On the other hand, teachers come into the classroom with their own construction and conceptions of subject content, and according to Patrick (1988), are not neutral. Therefore, a teachers understanding can colour the students understanding, and together, Patrick (1998) and Marton and Booth (1997) suggested that some teachers moulded the students construction of a concept to align with their concept interpretation. Einsworth and Collins (2002) conclude that the form of understanding impressed onto students is largely dependent on the teachers personal interpretation of the subject content. Therefore, although the constructivist theory assumes that the construction of understanding is the product of the learners interpretation exclusively, the constructivist theory does not account for the interplay between teachers and learners comprehension. To accommodate these pre-requisites of learning, the individuals knowledge needs to be continually assessed. As a regular classroom practice, formative assessment could be used as a regular approach to assess existing and new understanding, before moving to the next lesson. Formative assessment is a regular, informal mode of assessment, allowing teachers to monitor students progress, gain an appreciation of what has been learnt and adapt their teaching practices to optimise further learning (Black and Wiliam, 1998). Accordingly, given that learning is an active and evolving processes, formative assessment can be used by teachers to assess, monitor, challenge unclear perspectives and adapt classroom practices to accommodate the constructivist principles of learning. Therefore, it is reasonable to believe that constructivist approaches to learning favour the use of formative assessment and may prompt its use in the classrooms, which Atkin et al, (2001) reports as being very valuable. Since formative assessment alone is associated with learning gains, (Black and Wiliam 1998), learning is positively influenced indirectly via adopting teaching strategies which are aligned to learning constructively. Formative assessment may be undertaken through questioning, teacher and pupil discussion, peer and self assessment and interaction with peers. Formative assessment will also identify pupils individual learning needs, supporting teachers conduct in differentiation to assure pupils are moving forward, across their ZPD and optimise learning gains. However, with behaviourism, the opportunities for feedback are confined to only whether the response desired is correct or not. There is little scope for learning, or how to improve in order to meet the desired response. Therefore, under behaviourist approaches, feedback cannot be used for learning purposes, therefore opportunities for assessment for learning, which have shown to enhance learning, may not be fruitful. Consequently, limited feedback combined with the objective outcomes of behaviourist approaches mean that individual student needs are not necessarily part of the formulae when considering teaching strategies and subject content. The need to consider individual needs is undeniable, therefore such constraints of feedback extent presents a multitude of problems to the teaching and learning of students. Importantly, to help progressive learning and avoid developing misconceptions, teachers need to provide a clear focus and goals, with explicit learning objectives (Clarke, 2001), which are rooted within pupils existing knowledge. The clear objectives allow students to construct their ideas using current knowledge and understand the overarching direction and progression of their learning. Activating prior knowledge is important to elicit pre-knowledge, allowing teachers to decipher the students current levels of understanding. Teachers need to highlight the links between students existing knowledge and the new subject knowledge, to help the learner form bridges and facilitate their mental construction and cognitive processes (REF). By forming these links, students can activate and recall their pre-existing knowledge, and use this foundation to build and integrate new concepts. Teachers should encourage students to relate new knowledge to current knowledge and external experiences, allowing the new subject content to become embedded within the existing knowledge structures, contributing to or amending to the students schema. Since learning constructively is based on the addition of new content to current knowledge, the learner must have sufficient levels of understanding before new content can be used to construct more complex meaning and progress. Teachers and educators need to recognise and appreciate that new content cannot be built up until the foundations, such as current knowledge, is secured. Therefore constructive pedagogies include regular formative assessment to assure students understanding. When constructing new concepts and developing understanding, reviewing and reflecting on what has already been learnt also helps to establish and secure students previous knowledge. In addition, by asking what students understand before embarking on a new concept would help students form links between new and previous knowledge (Fulton). This reviewing could be done as a starter, but also plays a role at the end of the lesson, forming a plenary. Teachers should consider, incorporate and plan for well managed plenary to consolidate knowledge. Time to reflect upon what has been undertaken, the processes and the content gives the opportunity for internalisation and for a deeper level of understanding to be developed. Similarly, learning is most effective when learners become engaged, which means that teachers need to adopt an active approach to learning and involve engaging tasks to promote learning in the classroom. Learning using authentic tasks, which allow pupils to relate to their own experience inside and outside the classroom (Selinger, 2001) increases the probability of engagement with the task and supports findings that learning in a familiar context is most effective. Authentic tasks are likely to hold the attention and interest of children, and lead to a deeper level of engagement than with non-authentic or less authentic tasks (Fulton). Favourably, the constructivist principles match those fundamentals associated with effective contextual learning. Evidence suggests that learning occurs in real-life contexts and learning is actually linked to a context, as deduced by Macleod and Goldby 2003. Children working with new ideas in a familiar content are more likely to engage with the ideas, than if the same ideas were present in an alien context. Therefore teachers should strive to include more authentic tasks and set learning concepts which are aligned with students familiar contexts. If a learning activity falls beyond the cultural understanding of the learning, then learning is likely to be less successful than if it had been situated in a more familiar setting. .Meaningful contexts for learning are very important; however, what is meaningful for a teacher is not necessarily meaningful for the student. The association between the concept of learning being situated and the need for authentic learning tasks is evidence (McFarlane, 1997). However, the recommended approach to situation learning in meaningful contexts (e.g. Lave Wenger, 1991) has been argued against. Walkerdine, 1988, for example argued that if school learning became situated solely within the lived world of daily experiences, the opportunities for abstract reasoning and reflective activity, which are all constituents of constructivism, would become limited and sacrificed, whilst confining students to their local environment. An active learning approach can be achieved by encouraging students to explore concepts and ideas, and to follow their instincts (Wray and Lewis, 1997). Given that exploration can promote sequential development of ideas, it is likely to assist in the construction of new knowledge; the roots to constructivism. Classroom practice could be based on a discovery-based approach (Huitt, 2004);, where students can find answers out for themselves, answer their own questions through experimenting with new ideas and discuss their beliefs and thinking patterns with their peers. Importantly, engaging with each other reflects social interactions, which can be a vehicle to develop understanding using social interaction. Unlike behaviourist approaches where the teacher is the primary resources of knowledge and is influenced by their interests and perspective; knowledge construction offers the opportunity of learning to become dynamic and varied (Sudizna, 1997). The use of resources promotes more interactive learning and interest, which are both shown to positively influence learning. Supported by Winn (1990), student knowledge is dynamic and changes, that is knowledge and skills are different before learning to after instruction and Behaviourist approaches have been criticised for not addressing this dynamic nature of learning. In addition, behaviourism theory does not appreciate that students come into classrooms with prior knowledge. Conversely, the constructivist theory acknowledges that pre-existing knowledge is requisite of learning and that students enter classrooms with pre-conceptions, knowledge and beliefs which they deploy in constructing new understanding. (Jones, Carter, Rua, 1999) As already discussed, scaffolding is crucial for the learner to pass through their zone of proximal development, and can be undertaken by the teacher. Scaffolding can be practiced in the classroom in many ways, and teachers need to appreciate that this is fundamental to the educational progression of students and how this may be achieved. Support materials need to be widely available, such as a writing frame to support a particular style of prose, or a list of words to help in the process of completing an exercise, designed to assist understanding The provision of practical apparatus, especially in science, may help to explain the solution to a problem and is an engaging approach. Students can evidence reality and attach a sense of perspective and reality to their learning. Given the exploratory nature of constructivism, classroom practice needs to be supportive and generate an environment where the student feels safe to ask for help and comfortable in approaching the teacher. The teacher must be aware of the different supportive needs of the class, and meet these through differentiation and allowing time for class discussion, misconceptions and any lack of understanding. To help the teacher identify those who need more support than others, formative assessment can be incorporated to highlight the students individual needs that need to be addressed. Ultimately, this will allow tasks to be designed and geared towards the individuals learning ability. Unlike, behaviourism theories, constructivist theory appreciates the important rol

A Critical Analysis of “My Kiowa Grandmother”

A Critical Analysis of â€Å"My Kiowa Grandmother,† and â€Å"Take My Saddle from the Wall: A Valediction† A Critical Analysis of â€Å"My Kiowa Grandmother,† and â€Å"Take My Saddle from the Wall: A Valediction† The essays, â€Å"My Kiowa Grandmother,† by N. Scott Momaday and â€Å"Take My Saddle from the Wall: A Valediction,† by Larry McMurtry, both seek to understand the values and traditions of an old way of life that has been lost to the trials and tribulations of time.By reaching back into history through their families, both authors achieve the same effect, while using starkly contrasting narrative structure; they show the characteristics that have been lost to younger generations. The purpose of N. Scott Momaday’s essay, â€Å"My Kiowa Grandmother,† is personal self-expression, because he attempts to define his own values and judgments through an exploration of the memories and stories he has of his grandmother and ance stors. The title of Momaday’s essay sets the stage for the rest of his words. My Kiowa Grandmother,† becomes an exploration of who she was and the values that she lived by as part of the last generation of true Kiowa Indians. The essay that ensues is about Momaday collecting his interpretations of her life and analyzing the stories to find the values that the Kiowa honored and followed. Through his exploration, Momaday establishes a system of values that he chooses to try to follow himself. The essay’s content is divided not by a beginning, middle, and an end, but rather through a series of episodes and recollections that are slightly disconnected but belong to a larger picture.The essay is filled with descriptions of the land the Kiowa dwelled on and the manner in which they lost that land, thus forcing them onto a reservation. He discusses the journey his ancestors took as he himself travels in their footsteps a century later across North America, from Montana to Arkansas, where the Kiowa lived for many decades. He then begins to offer a more personal view of his grandmother and his memories of her when the weight of age has come upon her (290). He illustrates for the reader a very intimate moment where he watched and listened to her praying.Despite not speaking the native language, â€Å"there was something inherently sad in the sound† of her prayers (290). He ends the paragraph by revealing that he knew that he would not see her again after watching her pray that night. As Momaday tells the stories, they are completely separate of one another but all share in a relationship as a whole. His words indicate that the Kiowa Indians were a proud people who faced the cruelties of manifest destiny as the United States spread westward across the Great Plains, forcing Native Americans onto reservations.Momaday sets out on his proud journey to understand his people and to adapt their culture and values in the present day, but ultimately con cludes that those traits have died with â€Å"the last great moment of their history† (288). Similarly, Larry McMurtry also seeks to identify old values and traditions that are long lost to history in his essay, â€Å"Take My Saddle from the Wall: A Valediction. † Unlike Momaday, however, he constructs his essay with an introduction, followed by the body of his essay, and then offers a conclusion that links the entire narrative together from beginning to end.McMurtry’s approach presents a cleverly braided narrative utilizing literary devices, such as drama and humor, to reflect his main ideas. Still, both essays are expressive in nature. The authors delve deep into their thoughts in order to construct the personal essays in which each man seeks to find his values within himself. Even though McMurtry’s essay is significantly longer and â€Å"prolonged in thought† (142) compared to Momaday’s essay, he seeks to achieve an understanding of the v alues and traditions of his ancestors as well.McMurtry includes a metaphor that equates the departing of his relatives, and the other cowboys of their day, as a train that has left. In a few years, the tail end of the train will pass out of sight; a way of life has come and gone (142). McMurtry creates a story about his family, based on their accounts left to him in memoirs and letters throughout the years. McMurtry’s ultimate purpose is to narrate an expressive literary essay that uses humor and drama to attract the attention of the reader.While discussing cowboys and their straightforward wisdom, he concludes that cowboys’ observations turn into aphorisms. One such aphorism he finds particularly appealing is as follows: â€Å"A woman’s love is like the morning dew, it’s just as likely to fall on a horseturd as on a rose† (149). McMurtry also includes a great deal of drama and suspense as well. At one point, he recalls his grandfather’s tro ublesome drinking; one day his grandmother issued an ultimatum, sober up or she would leave him. â€Å"The threat was undoubtedly made in earnest, and he took it so immediately to eart that he stopped drinking then and there, with a jug half full of whiskey hanging in the saddle room of the barn† (143). Additionally, a substantial difference between the two essays is the author’s view of their ancestors. McMurtry admits that he â€Å"never considered genealogy much of an aid to recognition, and thus never pursued [his] lineage any distance at all† (143). On the other hand, Momaday is very curious of his lineage. So curious in fact that he actually sets out on a â€Å"fifteen hundred [mile]†¦ pilgrimage† (289) to see where his ancestors began their journey onto the plains.Momaday describes his ancestors as people of the Earth, whereas McMurtry’s cowboy ancestors preferred the company of minorities, such as Mexicans and Blacks, to the company of farmers. â€Å"The plow and the cotton patch [were] not only tasks [his ancestors] loathed† they were qualities of a soul that the McMurtry’s despised (146). The method of organization that authors use is important to the overall presentation of their thoughts. Momaday’s attempt at self-definition is an integral part of the pattern of his essay.Momaday achieves his goal by organizing his thoughts in a descriptive, associative pattern that allows him to tell multiple disconnected stories that are a part of a larger picture. Momaday portrays the Kiowa people and where they lived. He describes his grandmother and his memories of her, then recounts the sad and lonely home that once belonged to her, and the commotion that once filled the rooms of the house during reunions. Each of the parts of his essay comes together as pieces of a whole puzzle do when he ventures out to her grave.Ultimately, his quest to understand the values of the Kiowa, and to find himself with in their stories and traditions, is lost as are the generations of old Indian warriors. After visiting his grandmother’s grave, the weight and understanding of the loss prevails and â€Å"looking back once, [he] saw the mountain and came away† (292). His journey to understand his people, for him, ended with the death of his grandmother. As he departed the ancient burial ground at the base of Rainy Mountain, he left not only his ancestors there, but also his dream of carrying out their traditions as well.Each part of Momaday’s essay is a static representation in time, or snapshots of an event that occurred. Conversely, McMurtry’s essay follows a dynamic pattern; the details he provides change from one event to another. McMurtry excels at offering a great deal of description through his narration, and the pattern that he follows is an expressive narration of process. The events that McMurtry depicts are unique to him, and will differ from other accounts of the same stories provided by family and friends. This pattern allows him to eliminate the five stages that a narration of an event demands.All the parts of his narrative are equally important in their accounts, and the resolution is the last event the McMurtry draws from. In addition, tension does not increase throughout the events that are presented. This allows McMurtry to describe a level account of many great stories that prevents the reader from feeling as if he omitted any accounts that would provide additional insight. Although each author’s essay follows a certain format for organization, the patterns the two men use are very similar as well.In describing his essay, Momaday uses a good deal of narration to move the story along from snapshot to snapshot. McMurtry, on the other hand, uses a tremendous amount of description in each of his small stories within his essay to deliver his narration in its literary purpose. For example, when McMurtry shares one of his favorite aphorisms about dew falling on a horesturd or a rose, his description of the cowboys before and after the statement is necessary in order for the statement to make sense. In addition, McMurtry uses a fair amount of description when discussing a country club that was host for a family reunion.The details of that paragraph range from â€Å"rusty slot-machines† to the â€Å"sights and sounds which one associates with big-city country clubs† and finally â€Å"the ploop of badly hit tennis balls† (157). His description allows the reader to generate in their mind the same picture that McMurtry portrays. The two approaches that each author uses, although similar in style, are structurally different and therefore allow each man to express his thoughts using different methods. Both authors utilize an expressive tone that opens their minds to the reader in order to grasp a better understanding of the goal of each essay.Overall, despite the varying structure, both article s are successful in their attempt to find the values and traditions among their families and ancestors. Both endings are concise and manage to bridge the gap between the introduction and the conclusion. Similar to Momaday, McMurtry closes with a scene describing the departure of his Uncle Johnny from a family reunion only a few months before his passing: When he smiled at the children who were near, the pain left his face for a second, and he gave them the look that had always been his greatest appeal – the look of a man who saw life to he last as a youth see it, and who sees in any youth all that he himself had been (172). The final snapshot of McMurtry’s uncle before his death has stuck with McMurtry through the trials of time. Both authors realize that the traditions of their rugged ancestors were gone, â€Å"such as it was, such as it can never be again† (172). Works Cited McMurtry, Larry. â€Å"In a Narrow Grave. † New York: Simon & Schuster, Inc. 20 06. Kindle Edition. Electronic book. 24 May 2010. Momaday, N. Scott. â€Å"My Kiowa Grandmother. † Purpose, Pattern, and Process. United States of America: Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company, 2005. 287-92. Print.

The Interesting Narrative of Olaudah Equiano Book Review

Compare the 18th century African slave trade to a game of checkers. Played on a checkered board of 64 opposing colors, the object of checkers is to capture or block all the men of an opponent. Careful planning of attack and defense are key elements to winning. The Interesting Narrative of Olaudah Equiano does more than just detail the experiences of a former African slave, it sets forth the play sequence between the various players engaged in the slave trade, the emotions involved, the effects and consequences on the players, and the future of the game if it were allowed to continue. Equiano experienced life as a slave on several continents. He endured the torment of the Middle Passage and the various physical and emotional insults and tortures, which came as a result of bondage to another individual. These descriptions are important in establishing the primary players in the slave game. The first is the African player and the other is the White player represented by both Europeans and Americans. The beginning descriptions of Equiano’s tribal life are instrumental in understanding the nature of the African player. Equiano perceives the difference in the African way of life versus that of the European as merely one of time. The Africans have not had the time to learn and grow as the Europeans have. Equiano maintains the notion that existing in a different state of being does not give the European the right to take advantage of their situation in order to promote their own welfare. â€Å"Let the polished and haughty European recollect that his ancestors were once, like the African, uncivilized, and even barbarous. Let such reflections as these melt the pride of their superiority into sympathy for the wants and miseries of their sable brethren and compel them to acknowledge that understanding is not confined to feature or color. Equiano uses scripture to support his idea that all men were created the same and merely existed in different states of progression. The majority of Europeans did not share Equiano’s views. As a result the rules of the game changed for the Europeans who viewed themselves as superior to that of the African. These views were responsible for the horrors, which many Africans f aced in slavery. Even those Europeans who tried to treat slaves with respect could not escape the economic benefits slavery provided them. As a result the European was held captive by his own desire to win rather than to play fair. The European plan of attack was ruthless and he felt he had nothing to fear from the African. Equiano writes that these feelings on the part of the European ate away at the salvation of the European soul. Slavery affected not only the body of the African but also their hope. Equiano describes men in his company who would rather jump off a ship and perish in the sea than endure the atrocities of the Middle Passage. Even those Africans who were granted freedom still suffered the abuse of slavery. After a horrifying incident aboard the London slave ship the Zong, Equiano, a free man at the time, wrote of the courts â€Å"he saw no help in them, nor by the law. † Not only was the incident aboard the Zong an example of the horrors that existed when people were treated as property but served as an example of how the ideas of superiority on the part of the English served to strike a blow at the hope of the African. The recurring theme of religion in Equiano’s narrative is important in understanding that one’s actions cannot escape the judgment and eye of God. Equiano felt comfort and solace in the doctrines of Christianity. It was a force that comforted him when his duties of a slave almost destroyed him and his inability to be treated as an equal when free mystified him. In true Christianity Equiano also saw hope for the Europeans who were losing their souls to the slave trade. In an address of thanks to the Quakers in Grace Church Court, Equiano states that by lifting the burdens of the Negroes there might be in â€Å"some measure, be the possible means, under God, of saving the souls of many of the oppressors. In the checker game of the slave trade, the Europeans did not realize that their men were being lost. They felt they were winning the game in regards to economics. Equiano alerted the reader to the cost the European was paying for their grasp on wealth and prosperity. Equiano’s notion that men can only be saved through a combination of faith, works and grace is important in understanding the effects of the trade upon the future of the game. Equiano recognized that there were no lasting winners in the slave trade. The Europeans were losing the game because they failed to see the eternal consequences of their actions. Equiano believed that the European could still prosper economically without the slave trade if the right plan were to be put into effect. This plan would benefit all involved. Equiano fight for the abolishment of slavery was the tip of the iceberg in his quest. He called for a change of attitude in regards to race relations. He believed this would be the ultimate step in restoring the dignity of all involved. Equiano had seen first hand that many Europeans still viewed Africans as property even when they were free and treated them as such. Equiano knew that merely breaking the chains of slavery was not enough to make its effect disappear. Just as men needed all components of the faith – grace equation to be saved, those involved in the slave trade needed a change in attitude to prevail in order to restore hope and eternal relationships. Equiano wrote, â€Å"After all what makes any event important, unless by its observation we become better and wiser, and learn to do justly, to love mercy, and to walk humbly before God? . Equiano’s narrative teaches us that in order for individuals to truly win they must not compete against one another nor capture or enslave based on the notion of race. Instead they should look for ways to work together to find and enjoy the treasures of wisdom and salvation Equiano believed were available to all. I believe in Equiano’s message. It w as one of powerful humility and quite visionary for his time. He was no ordinary man as he claims. His insights into his experiences and encounters with both players of the slave trade reflected a depth of understanding no money could buy. His ability to shed light on the emotions of all players involved opened my eyes to the various sides of the slave trade of the time. His message is applicable not only to these aspects of slave trade of the 18th century but also to other concepts of World History past and present. It is important to recognize and understand the concept that when we fail to recognize the importance of others and try to dominate rather than cooperate the only winner of the game is disaster and heartache.

Employment Law and Unfair Dismissal - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 4 Words: 1211 Downloads: 1 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Career Essay Type Argumentative essay Tags: Employment Essay Did you like this example? INTRODUCTION In this case between Tara Quinn and her employer Park publications Ltd, Tara is considering resigning and claiming constructive dismissal on the grounds that she believes she is being unfairly treated because she refuses to make changes to her employment contract after they took over the company twelve months before. She recently received a final written warning after missing a deadline and believes the company is trying to work her out of the business unless she concedes It is my plan to examine the employment law relevant to this case such as The Unfair Dismissals Act, to determine if Tara were to take a constructive dismissal case would it be successful. To look at various different aspects of the law such as Transfer of Undertakings Protection of Employment to advise Tara to her rights as an employee after the company changed hands. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Employment Law and Unfair Dismissal" essay for you Create order The Code of Practice on Grievance and Disciplinary procedure 2000, to look at the approach taken by her employer when issuing the written warning. Based on the facts of the law I will then offer Tara advice or remedies to her current employment situation. EMPLOYMENT LAW The Unfair Dismissal Act 1977 Constructive Dismissal arises where an employee terminates their contract of employment with or without prior notice due to the conduct of the employer. The employee’s resignation is classified as involuntary as a consequence of breach of contract by the employer, and were the actions of the employer were so unreasonable that the employee was left with no option but to resign. (1) The employee is entitled to regard their contract as terminated if: The employers conduct amounts to an actual breach of the contract of employment. The employers conduct shows that they no longer intend to be bound by one or more of the essential terms of the contract. The employer has acted unreasonably. Conduct by fellow employees that go unchecked by the employer may also be taken into account. (2) Points to note in regard to constructive dismissal The burden of proof lies solely with the employee. The complaints or grievance procedure should be utilized before resigning. Any outside industrial relations procedures should be used before resigning. Resigning should be the last resort after having used all available means of resolving the problem. (3) The Employment appeals Tribunal (EAT) will have regard to the employees conduct prior to resignation and in considering whether it was reasonable will look at whether the employee brought their concerns to the employers attention and whether they utilized and exhausted internal grievance procedures. Or whether the employer was given adequate opportunity by the employee to deal with their concerns. (4) When applying the law of the Unfair Dismissals Act to the facts of Tara’s case, Tara would need to prove that her employer left her with no other option but to resign. A Tribunal will test if there was any considerable breach in her contract or if the employer’s actions were unreasonable. In this case as it stands, resigning is not the last resort. Tara has not voiced her concerns to her employers or utilized the grievance procedure in any way. In the case between Daniel O’Gorman V Glen Tyre Company (Case No UD2314/2010) and the case between Mark Harold V St Michaels House, both cases were brought to The EAT on grounds of Constructive Dismissal and both cases failed for the same reason. The claimant’s, in both cases, lack of engagement with the respondent’s in relation to their grievances meant that their termination of their own employment was found to be unreasonable. (7) Transfer of Undertaking Protection of Employment Regulations (TUPE) The Transfer of Undertaking Protection of Employment Regulations apply where a transfer of business from one employer to another as a result of a legal transfer. As stated in the Irish Statute Book, following a transfer, the transferee shall continue to observe the terms and conditions agreed in any collective agreement on the same terms applicable to the transferor under that agreement until the date of termination or expiring of the collective agreement or the entry into force or application of another collective agreement. (5) In other words when a transfer has taken place the new employer is obliged to abide by the existing employment contracts for employees, unless a mutual agreement can be made between the new employer and the existing employees. When applying this law to Tara’s case she is perfectly within her rights to continue to work under the terms of her own contract and has the right to refuse any changes. The Code of Practice on Grievance and Disciplinary Procedures 2000. The main purpose of the code is to provide guidance to employers on the general principles, which apply in grievance and discipline procedures. To apply disciplinary measures in a fair and consistent manner. For management to maintain a satisfactory standards. For employees to have access to procedures where alleged failures to comply with these standards may be fairly addressed. (6) All disciplinary matters should be conducted with due regard to natural justice and fairness. Natural justice includes: The right to know the nature of the allegations made against you The right to a fair and impartial hearing The right to representation The right to state your case The right to appeal Disciplinary steps may include: Verbal warning Written warning Final written warning Suspension or dismissal All disciplinary steps should be progressive depending on the seriousness of the offense. The Code of Practice on Grievance and Disciplinary Procedures 2000 can be used in a couple of areas in Tara’s case. Tara received a final written warning for missing a deadline to return completed accounts to the company’s head office. Judging by the facts of the case, Tara wasn’t offered the right to a hearing or the right to representation. Also the company deemed the offense serious enough to skip past a verbal warning, straight to a written warning, to which Tara has the right to appeal. Conclusion In my opinion, I feel, at this time, if Tara were to take a case of constructive dismissal, it would fail as she has not exhausted all avenues on an internal basis first and a tribunal would find her resignation unreasonable. Outside of this Tara is still left in a difficult situation. I feel her manager’s approach with the written warning was incorrect and Tara did not receive Natural Justice and fair treatment. She wasn’t offered the right to representation, there was no investigatory meeting and she wasn’t offered any representation. It would be my advise to Tara to appeal the written warning to her managers superior and request a right to state her case. During an appeal meeting Tara could bring along her own representative and raise the issues she is having with her manager in relation to changing aspects of her contract. At this time she may discuss and negotiate new terms and conditions or stick with her original contract. After the appeal meeti ng Tara’s employer may decide to proceed with the written warning depending on how serious they feel her offense was. If after all of Tara’s concerns have been documented and the problems persist between herself and her manager she may then consider going on to a constructive dismissal case.